Marketing Research Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Marketing Research Methods - Essay Example Hafalarf, a Lloyds Insurance syndicate is thinking of underwriting a policy to cover students. A market survey needs to be done to determine the level of cover currently in place, examine the attitude of the students to buying insurance cover, and identify the different kinds of insurance available in the market. This paper is in the form of a project report to identify the feasibility of Lloyds entering the college-level insurance sector for students. What is Insurance Web definition: Insurance is a plan in which individuals and organisation who are concerned about potential risks, pay premiums to an insurance company, who in return, will reimburse them if there is loss. To generate a profit, the insurer will invest the premiums it receives. Insurance is covered for almost all products except those that are caused by natural calamities such as, Earthquakes, landslide, hurricane. Insurance cover life, health, home, work, studies, mortgage, etc. Whereas in most cases the insured is paid for his or her loss, with life insurance a beneficiary is paid when the insured person passes away (www.environmentalinvestors.com/glossary/ilIneIns.htm). Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. it is contract in which one party agrees to pay for another party's financial loss resulting from a specified event. An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, defined as an insurance 'policy' (Insurance Information: The Insurance Facts You Need to Know!, http://www.summarized.org/insurance-information.htm). 3.0 Insurance and the global market 2002 was a year of turmoil for the international insurance and reinsurance industry, as many companies faced contrasting fluctuations and challenges. Investment returns fell further, making the need to achieve real underwriting profits even more important. Ratings agencies implemented an unprecedented downgrading of their assessments of the industry's financial strength. Losses under policies written in the latter years of the 1990s required insurers and re-insurers to make substantial reserve additions for billions of dollars. The awareness of risks arising from potential terrorist acts threw many insurers' traditional pricing methodologies out of order. Some companies failed, others withdrew, and a clutch of new competitors joined the global market. Some capital providers fled the sector; others redoubled their commitments. 4.0 Students Insurance Student Medical Insurance is ideal for students who are no longer covered as a dependent under their parents insurance, or who are attending school outside

Learning Styles Inventory Essay Example for Free

Learning Styles Inventory Essay Taking the Learning Styles Inventory Test was an insightful, informational, and introspective experience as a whole. It measures seven areas of standards or measure that clearly define an individual’s behavioral approach on learning – the visual, social, physical, aural, verbal, solitary, and logical learning styles. Each question within the test inquires about an individual’s leaning or inclination to harboring the outcomes of learning from each means or scenario indicated. The questions provide a learning situation where one will determine how he identifies with it, and one’s identification with each specific scenario determines how one learns through various situations. Putting oneself within each scenario allows one to review or evaluate one’s motivations in learning in order to understand clearly how one’s behavior and learning environment would and should be altered to facilitate greater learning. The result of the Learning Styles Inventory Test clearly indicates my personality or takes on the learning situation. Out of the seven learning styles, the Memletic Learning Styles Graph, as shown below, depicts that I am more inclined to learn effectively when I utilize my physical functions. The rating for each of the learning styles was remote that the bodily-kinesthetic learning style (18 points) stands out among the seven. (â€Å"Learning Styles Inventory – Results Page,† 2007) This piece of information I find true as I do tend to want or need to manipulate or experiencing things in order to learn or realize the structures or dimensions of objects, concepts, occurrences, and such. (â€Å"The Physical (Bodily-Kinesthetic) Learning Style,† 2007) Therefore, the result from the test did not surprise me at all. Next to the physical learning style, the aural learning style (15 points) follows as the second dominant one that applies to me. This is yet another factual information because I do find myself enjoying the learning experience when I work with music or sounds in the background. (â€Å"The Aural (Auditory-Musical-Rhythmic) Learning Style,† 2007) Music, as part of the learning environment, sets the mood or rhythm that motivates me to carry on and finish, not to mention enjoy, what I am doing. On the contrary, the least learning styles that I can identify my learning behaviors with is the verbal learning style (11 points), also including the visual, social, and solitary learning styles (12 points each). This means that I am not motivated enough to learn by reading or writing, looking at or watching visuals, socializing with other people, and even keeping to myself. The results of the test suggest that my strengths lie in my motivations and capabilities to do, or to become more productive by being actively involved during the learning experience. However, it might be difficult to become motivated within the learning environment as learning media such as visuals, written texts, the processes of socialization and independent learning are part of learning strategies or approaches being utilized in most cases. Moreover, the learning environment is balanced, such that it fosters various methods or approaches in learning; and my unbalanced learning styles suggest that I will not be able to keep up with the learning environment. Perhaps the most logical thing to do at this point is to try to even out or balance the learning styles that I should be accustomed to in order to draw out the advantages from it whenever the learning environment or situation calls for it. If it remains to be unbalanced, like my test results indicate, inflexibility will not facilitate learning but hinder the process of acquiring knowledge and skills as learning environments vary every time. Accomplishing this goal means that I would have to expose myself to varying learning situations, and understand the importance of each one in order to balance out my learning inclinations for the seven learning styles indicated. With this in mind, as the realization of the need to balance out these learning styles I have come to realize, I believe that taking the test allows one to understand the importance of being exposed to various learning situations and experiences which fosters creativity, flexibility, and competence in the workplace. References â€Å"Learning Styles Inventory – Results Page. † (2007). Retrieved November 26, 2008, from Advanogy. com. Website: http://www. learning-styles-online. com/inventory/results. asp â€Å"The Aural (Auditory-Musical-Rhythmic) Learning Style. † (2007). Retrieved November 26, 2008, from Advanogy. com. Website: http://www. learning-styles-online. com/style/aural-auditory-musical/ â€Å"The Physical (Bodily-Kinesthetic) Learning Style. † (2007). Retrieved November 26, 2008, from Advanogy. com. Website: http://www. learning-styles-online. com/style/physical-bodily-kinesthetic/

Report On Pakistan Tobacco Industry

Report On Pakistan Tobacco Industry This project is based on analysis of the tobacco industry because Tobacco in Pakistan holds an economic significance in Pakistan economy. Pakistan is second largest cigarette consumer in south Asia. It is a great source of revenue for major players and for Pakistan economy. It gives the highest revenue to government in terms of taxes. Pakistan tobacco company is dominated by two major players Pakistan tobacco company and philip Morrris. They have brands which hold the maximum share in the cigarratte market few are dunhill, gold leaf, capstan, gold flake, benson and hedges, Marlboro, embassy, and red and white. They have high demand for these brands. The increase in demand and supply may be due to more brands offered by the cigarettes manufactures and in the late 1990s tobacco companies were allowed to advertise their brands. However the consumption of cigarettes is more than the official data mainly due to no record of smuggling and unregistered cigarettes manufacturers. The demand s upply also vary because of seasonal fluctuations, holy month of Ramadan, inflation and increase in population. The companies have enough capacity but they do not utilize that capacity because currently smuggling is practiced in a country at high level. There is an availability of raw material in different regions of the country but NWFP and Punjab are the major producer of the raw material. Tobacco duty structure in Pakistan divided into complicated 3 levels. Lower, lower mid and premium. There are few issues related to the industry the main issue is the smuggling which affects the market badly other are the advertisement, health before trade, increase taxes, close down duty free, tax evasion. These issues have risen because no action taken by the government. They should control smuggling by tracing the distributors which would also helpful in a way to control tax evasion, companies should use modern technologies and should have timely control to have more yield. Table of Contents OVERVIEW Tobacco in Pakistan holds an economic significance in Pakistan economy. Tobacco is grown throughout the country but major source of tobacco raw material is in the Khyber Pakhtoon khowa. In Pakistan, although tobacco cultivation occupies a relatively small area of 0.27% of the total irrigated land in the country and about 3% in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Pakistan was a net importer of tobacco in 1948 but became self sufficient in tobacco production in 1969. It was mainly due increase in productivity and new method used for tobacco cultivation. Pakistan tobacco exports and imports countries are prominent. Pakistan within 30 years of Independence became 5th largest tobacco producer in the world and 4th highest in yield. Currently tobacco industry in Pakistan is dominated by two multinational firms Pakistan Tobacco Company LTD and Phillip Morris Pakistan LTD. Though there are others firms but their influence on tobacco industry is not significant. Other companies are: Sarhad Cigarette Industry, Walton Tobacco Company, International Cigarette Industry, Khyber Tobacco Company, Imperial Cigarette Industry, Universal Tobacco Company, Saleem Cigarette Industry, Souvenir Tobacco Company. Cigarette industry contributes nearly 3.5 percent of total FBR revenue currently the major challenge for Tobacco industry is the increasing trend of smuggling. Overview of the market share of tobacco industry in Pakistan Economic Significance This crop possesses immense economic significance and its impact on the fiscal and monetary policies of Pakistan. Tobacco possesses great source of revenue, employment and foreign exchange earnings to the country. It give the highest revenue to government in terms of taxes. Tobacco industry currently employs about 80,000 workers in cultivation, 50,000 are employed in 21 factories of the tobacco industry and it also provides 1 million indirect employments. It is also an important source of foreign exchange earnings for the country approximately US$ 61.349 million during the fiscal year of 2010-2011.Pakistan Tobacco board have played an important role in developing the production of tobacco crop on scientific methods, if it had not been developed the country would have been importing raw material worth Rs.8-10 billion per annum (2009-2010). Exports Year Quantity exported Value Total Value Tobacco Cigarettes Cigars Tobacco Cigarettes Cigars (M.Rs) (M.US$) (M.Kgs) (M.Nos) M.Nos (M.Rs) (M.Rs) M.Rs 1999-2000 3.90 16.060 273.13 7.440 280.57 5.420 2000-2001 5.98 11.770 578.05 6.220 586.18 10.032 2001-2002 3.20 108.240 231.11 49.180 286.41 4.659 2002-2003 5.49 74.23 316.75 45.62 362.37 6.25 2003-2004 8.27 163.96 642.74 124.35 767.09 13.23 2004-2005 7.17 44.73 626.67 46.94 673.61 11.23 2005-2006 3.83 21.00 332.80 66.70 339.47 5.66 2006-2007 5.77 26.12 0.77 543.85 24.64 1.69 570.18 9.50 2007-2008 4.72 3.97 0.13 449.82 4.17 0.16 454.15 5.68 2008-2009 4.77 10.97 0.02 963.27 14.84 0.03 978.14 13.973 2009-2010 5.17 13.94 11.10 1201.08 24.22 16.41 1241.71 15.521 2010-2011 8.39 23.49 2294.53 39.75 - 2334.28 24.571 Pakistan main exporter for tobacco is US because it does not produce quality unmanufactured tobacco. The value increase by 85% during 2000-2001 fiscal yea. However the value decline by 53% from 10.032 to 4.659 in 2001-2002. The main reason for decline was the aftermath of 9/11 which resulted in exports orders cancelled. Foreign business people were advise to take security clearance. Year 2003-2004 saw a 100% increase in value from pervious year. In 2005-2006 year tobacco industry experienced a fall of around 50% in value and the trend remained till 2007-2008 year. During the last fiscal year Pakistan tobacco industry achieved the highest value of exports at around 24.571 million. FLOW CHART/ MANUFACTURING PROCESS Processing and manufacturing After harvesting and curing, the cured leaf is processed through a Green Leaf threshing plant. The main purpose of this processing is to: Remove sand, dust and other particles Separate the lamina from the stem (threshing) Drive down the moisture content to safe storage levels. Manufacturing At Tobacco factories, the matured tobacco is checked for quality and then carefully mixed with other ingredients to make different forms of tobacco, such as flavorings or pre-processed tobacco. Technical tools are used to keep track of various types of tobacco; computers are increasingly used to keep track of the process. Moisture content is an important part of tobacco process. Too dry and the tobacco leaf will crumble; too moist and it may spoil during storage. Right amount of steam is required to treat the blended tobacco and exact amount of water to make it elastic and then cut into the form in which it appears in the cigarette. Excess moisture is then removed so the cut tobacco can be given a final blending and quality check. Traditionally Cigarette making was done by hand but nowadays it is almost fully automated, with the cut tobacco, cigarette paper and filters continuously fed into cigarette-making machines. The technology has advanced dramatically over the years which have not wear down the quality; each cigarette is automatically quality controlled to ensure that it meets every benchmark for its specification. STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION Product Mix Since Pakistan tobacco industry is dominated by two multinational companies Philip Morris and Pakistan Tobacco Company. Both companies have many brands in cigarettes which are produced to cater different income class. Pakistan Tobacco Company Brands available in Pakistan Super Premium Duhill High and Premium John Player Gold Leaf Benson Hedges Medium Category Gold Flake Wills Kings Capstan Low category Embassy Super Premium Marlboro High and Premium Red and white Medium Category Moven gold Low category K-2 Diplomat Philip Morris Pakistan Brands available in Pakistan Cigarette market in Pakistan is dominated by lower mid-priced cigarettes which are almost 90 percent of the market. Market for Premium category is only 10%. John Player Gold Leaf has a market share of 9.83 percent in the country whereas world leading brand Marlboro which is in the premium category have insignificant share ranging from 0.1 to 0.25% of the total market. In the middle category, Gold Flake has major market share of 38.64 percent followed by Morven Gold which caters to the 37 percent of the market need. Capstan has started losing its share as Pakistan Tobacco Company has introduced another brand as Capstan by Pall Mall, which has started capturing its share in the market. In the lower class Embassy has a market share of almost 4.5 percent whereas Diplomat has a market share of about 2.5 percent followed by K-2 with the market share of 1.5 percent of the total sales. At present, consumer price of a pack of 20 of most sold brand in the country is Rs 28.80 (US $0.33) which i s almost lowest in the world. Installed capacity Installed capacity for cigarettes sticks in billions 2010-2011 Average Industry 126 Pakistan Tobacco Company 45.1 Philip Morris Pakistan 50.1 Others 31 Average installed capacity for cigarettes manufacturing company in tobacco industry is 126 billion stick per year. Pakistan Tobacco Company Ltd which holds the largest market share in industry has an annual capacity of 45.1 billion cigarettes. Philip Morris Pakistan which is the second largest producer of Cigarettes has an annual capacity of 50.1 billion Capacity utilization Capacity utilization increased from 49.6 billion sticks in 2002-2003 to 75.8 billion sticks 2010-2011. Average 68 billion sticks are produced annually. Pakistan Tobacco Company produced 40.5 billion sticks out of a capacity of 45.1 billion during 2010-2011. Philip Morris produced 22.4 billion sticks from capacity of 50.1 billion during the same year. The reason for under utilization of capacity for Philip Morris is due to smuggling and illegal trade which will be discuss later in the report. Capacity utilization of Cigarettes sticks in Billion 2010-2011 Average industry utilization 68 Pakistan Tobacco Company 40.5 Phillip Morris Pakistan 22.4 RAW MATERIAL AVAILABILITY tobzones.jpg The map shows different types of raw materials available all over Pakistan. The major portion of raw material comes from NWFP and Punjab. Pakistan gets the majority of different types of raw material from NWFP mainly due to fertility of soil and suitable weather. NWFP produces around three-fourths of the tobacco leaf grown in the country. The specific raw materials that come from NWFP are Virginia flue-cured, Burley, Nicotiana rustica (country sum-cured/White Patta). Flue Cured Virginia tobacco is now the most widely grown and widely used type of cigarette tobacco in Pakistan and the total production of this high value commodity have increased from 23.8 million kgs in 1967-68 to 66 million kgs in 2007. Punjab is second largest in terms of raw material availability. Punjab is famous for the production of dark air-cured and hookah type tobaccos. Apart from these two raw material Kala Patta (snuff) is also cultivated in Punjab region. Sindh and Balochistan produces Nicotiana Rustica and Country air-cured (Snuff) respectively. Virginia and Burley is procured mostly from local farmers on contract basis Tobacco raw material is available extensively all over Pakistan is a major strength for Tobacco industry mainly. Pakistan is now the 7th largest producer of flue-cured tobacco. Deep researches and development have been carried out by Pakistan Tobacco Board in collaboration with tobacco companies in order to reduce dependence on the import of good quality tobacco leaf such as suitable climatic conditions have been explored in areas of Mansehra, Buner, Swat and Dir districts to meet the quality requirements of cigarettes for domestic use. Forms of Tobacco Intake Raw material is used for to make different form of tobacco such as Chilumhuqqah, chewing tobacco in pan, snuff and niswar. Experts divide tobacco use into two broad categories -smoking and smokeless tobacco. According to a survey conducted by PMRC apart from cigarettes moist dry snuff and chewing tobacco is commonly used in Pakistan. Huqqah and Chilum, are the oldest means of tobacco intake in this region. Production Of Different Types Of Tobacco In Pakistan (Million Kgs) Year Flue-cured Virginia Dark air-cured White Patta Burley Others Total 2000-2001 50.96 1.17 9.65 0.58 23.38 85.74 2001-2002 59.61 1.94 9.38 0.95 20.70 92.58 2002-2003 51.31 1.42 10.83 2.15 22.55 88.26 2003-2004 50.29 0.69 10.98 1.60 22.63 86.19 2004-2005 65.78 0.86 9.91 1.64 *22.63 100.82 2005-2006 73.7 1.6 13.2 0.9 23.12 89.47 2006-2007 65.75 0.80 11.62 0.8 24.27 78.97 2007-2008 69.54 0.96 14.98 0.35 21.93 85.83 2008-2009 71.32 1.38 25.98 - - 98.68 2009-2010 79.79 2.83 26.64 - 109.26 2010-2011 64.670 13.540 - 78.210 Annual estimated requirement of tobacco crop in 2012 Type of Tobacco (MillionKgs) Flue-cured Virginia 66.680 Dark Air-cured 1.085 White Patta 2.190 Burley 0.100 Sun Cured 1.100 Rustica 1.800 Total 72.955 Current production till April/may 2012 White PattaType of Tobacco (MillionKgs) Flue-cured Virginia 75.94 Dark Air-cured 1.41 7.40 Minimum price of raw material Rs.121 Current Market price Rs.140 Prices of raw material Duty Structure Tobacco duty structure in Pakistan divided into complicated 3 levels. Lower, lower mid and premium. In lower level there is an excise duty of Rs.9.5 for a pack of 20 cigarettes below retail price of Rs.20 excluding sales tax. Excise duty is 46% on most sold consumer brand, 56% excise duty on premium brand and 50% on cheapest brand. The excise duty is very low and difficult to understand. The Total revenue potential of the cigarette industry is around Rs 80 billion per year and around Rs.50.2818 billion taxes was collected during 2011-2012 from two multinationals and some other manufacturers. The difference shows that tax evasion in tobacco industry is high. Approximately Rs.9-10 billion tax is evaded annually. The main reason for this evasion is because of the complex tax structure and it is reported that multinationals and federal board of Revenue (FBR) have intentionally made tax difficult so that less amount can be charged thus benefiting cigarettes manufactures tax collection has also been affected due to inefficient check and balance. DEMAND AND SUPPLY ANALYSIS Estimated demand The demand/consumption for cigarettes has seen a steady growth over the years. domestic cnosumption by year.bmp consumption table 2.bmpconsumtion table.bmp The data above shows that consumption of cigarettes has been increasing since 1960 onwards. The data reveals that there have been massive increases in consumption pattern of cigarettes since 1996 mainly due to availability of more brands offered by cigarettes manufactured. Around 200 million cigarette sticks were consumed in 2011. There are about 22 million smokers in the country and 55% of the house households have at least one individual who smokes cigarettes. This consumption trend makes Pakistan an attractive market for cigarettes manufactures. Demographic cigarettes consumption trend 29% of men and 3.4% of women smoke cigarettes regularly according to national health survey Heavy consumption of smoking (20 or more cigarettes per day) is most common and among men 25-44 years of age in Pakistan. 37% of heavy smoking is done in urban areas in contrast to 26% in rural areas. Total cigarettes consumption in South Asia. total consumtion pie chart1.bmp The data shows that Pakistan is second largest cigarette consumer in south Asia. India is biggest consumer of cigarettes in south asia mainly due to highest population in the south asian region. Estimated supply tobacco3.bmp The table has been taken from Pakistan economic survey 2010-2011. Te table shows that since 1990 the supply/ production of cigarettes have been increasing. This table illustrates that production of cigarettes increased during 1995-1996. During 2008-2009 fiscal year supply reached its peak of 75,609 millions. Demand and Supply analysis There are certain points that we can derive from demand and supply of tobacco industry. Firstly there was a huge increase in consumption and production of Cigarettes in 199. The increase in demand and supply may be due to more brands offered by the cigarettes manufactures and in the late 1990s tobacco companies were allowed to advertise their brands. However the consumption of cigarettes is more than the official data mainly due to no record of smuggling and unregistered cigarettes manufacturers accurate. Some common factors for demand and supply fluctuation are discussed below Seasonal Fluctuations in demand Seasonal do play a part in consumption of cigarettes. During winter the demand for cigarettes increases. Demographics are also important, northern areas of Pakistan generally have a higher demand for cigarettes. Religious month of Ramdan Ramdan effects the consumption of cigarettes. During the month of Ramadan consumption of cigarettes decreases as people only smoke after fast or those who dont smoke tend to avoid smoking in front of people as it is unwelcomed by the society. Increase in population and availability of brands Increase in the population of Pakistan along with more availability of cigarettes brands by manufacturers have contributed in increasing the demand and supply of cigarettes. Moreover increasing trend of smoking being considered as fashionable has also contributed towards the increase in consumption. Different varieties means more choice for consumer. A Daily Times survey revealed that wholesale dealers supply fake and smuggled cigarettes to about 20,000 retailers of Lahore, who sell them to ignorant consumers who can either not tell the difference or sent their children or servants to buy cigarettes Natural disasters Natural calamities is another factor for fluctuation in demand and supply of Cigarettes. The worst floods in 2010 since 1974 damaged fertile tobacco-producing land such as in NWFP Taxation and inflation Changes in tax structure and inflation affect the production and consumption of cigarettes. An increase in tax results in decrease in production and increase in price thus reducing the demand for cigarettes. Inflation level in Pakistan is always increasing, the increase in price level make it worse for manufacturers and government as people shift to smuggled brands which are available at cheaper price. This act result in loss of revenue to government in terms of taxes and loss of sales for manufacturersporter.jpg Porters five Forces Model By using Porters Five Forces Framework we will discuss five basic competitive forces within the tobacco industry. The threat of potential new entrants, the bargaining power of suppliers, the bargaining power of buyers, the threat of substitutes, and the extent of competitive rivalry. Threat of new Entrants The barriers to entry in the Pakistan tobacco industry are low mainly due to less competition in the industry and local companies can easily enter the market however the barriers to enter the market nationally are very high. The reason for high barriers at national level is due to high manufacturing, distribution and marketing cost which makes it difficult for local companies to sustain themselves at national stage. High investment cost is required to build production facilities that can mass-produce tobacco products at the national level. Moreover packaging cost of cigarettes countrywide is very high which cannot be afforded by the new local firm. Brand identity is another barrier to entry in Pakistan Tobacco industry. Brand awareness is very important in any industry. In Pakistan government has imposed restriction on advertising. The ban on cigarettes adverstising is acting as a barrier to entry because advertising and communication is required to product strength in the mind of consumers. This ban is also effecting existing companies in a way that they cannot reinforce their current brands and will find difficulty in launching new brands. High brand loyalty in Tobacco industry is another entry barrier for new firms. Example Benson Hedges users will not shift to a new product because of high emotional attached to it. Bargaining power of Suppliers In Pakistan tobacco industry raw material for cigarettes is provided by farmers to manufacturers. Apart from Green Revolution agricultural products have been exploited in all decades this as resulted in low prices of agricultural products but throughout Pakistan history policies have been favoring industries, finished goods are sold at higher price whereas raw material are bought at lower prices. In Tobacco sector supplier has less bargaining power because of less competitors in tobacco industry. Many of the tobacco farmers are located in NWFP, Punjab. Even though government has imposed minimum price but it has been ineffective due to dominance of multinational firms in the tobacco sector. Multinational have bargaining power because they control more than 70% of the market thus illustrating that the farmers have little bargaining power due to the government interaction. Bargaining power of Buyers Economy plays an important role in buying cigarettes in tobacco industry. As we know Pakistan economy is uncertain with high unemployment, increasing inflation and political instability. These factors affect the buying power of consumers. Buyer power in tobacco industry also depends on disposable income. A decline in buyers disposable income results in buying cheaper brands of cigarettes and if a buyers disposable income increases, then they are more likely to buy more expensive brands. By looking at the current scenario Pakistan Tobacco Company launched a low price brand Capstan which became very popular among consumer and captured 14% of market share which effected the market share of Philip Morris brand Moven gold. A recent example of Pakistan Tobacco Company increased the price of Dunhill which resulted in decrease of their market share as consumers shifted towards low price brand Capstan. Consumers in the United States are now increasingly becoming more concerned with health issues. Consumer health awareness has hurt the market for tobacco sellers and has also led to the increase for government regulation. But in Pakistan which has more population than United States serves as an attractive market. Moreover less government regulation results in cigarettes manufacturers exploiting consumers. Threat of Substitutes The biggest substitute for tobacco users is to just quit using any type of tobacco product. many companies are trying to make product which is beneficial for the smokers to quit smoking, for this purpose they started campaign promoting awareness regarding health isssues. There are many services to help people using tobacco. As health issues and diseases increases day by day so people themselves willing to quit smoking for this purpose they started using different product or services like they started workout which would be the motivating factor or them to quit smoking. There are also some government websites which teaches different method to quit smoking and live a healthier life. Some people prefer to consult doctor and they provide them with prescription tablets or pills which would make them able to forget about smoking and it would be a source for them to live normal life, this also be one of the substitute for tobacco products. . There are many benefits which motivates the consumer of tobacco to quit like smokers will to live the heather life would be the motivating factor other than this the cost involves in getting cigarette is very high and due to inflation and rising prices of the cigarette consumer could not afford to have additional items into their daily routine so they started involved in different methods to quit smoking and Buyer propensity toward tobacco substitutes seems to have increased over time with the evidence that smoking can lead to health risks such as lung cancer, emphysema, heart disease, pregnancy complications, and other health problems. Competitive rivalry Competitive rivalry in tobacco sector is medium to high because more than 70% of the tobacco market is controlled by Pakistan Tobacco Company and Phillip Morris Pakistan. Both firms are involved in intensive price wars in order to get a market share. Dominant firm like PTC is continuously decreasing its in order to maintain its market leadership. Pakistan Tobacco Company reduced the price of its medium-price to sustain market share. This triggered threat to Philip Morris Pakistan as they also had to reduce their prices. Pakistan Tobacco Company controls the largest market share at around 60%. Pakistan tobacco company brand gold flake contributes largest revenue for the company. Both companies have divided their brands into different segments to cater different income class people. Even though the volume of cigarettes have been steady for the past few years the revenue continue to increase, thus making cigarettes manufacturers financial position stronger Rivalry in the low and medium sector of cigarettes has been a strong focus of the leading companies in recent years. The market for low and medium category is increasing in country mainly because of the income level in Pakistan. Pakistan Tobacco Company leads in this sector by having around 3 brands for medium and 1 brand to cater low income class. With the potential growth in middle and low category Pakistan Tobacco Company introduced another brand by name Capstan by mall pall even though it had Capstan brand. Philip Morris are also introducing new brands under medium and low category to extract the profitability. By using the Porters Five Forces Framework we were able to discuss the five basic competitive forces within the tobacco industry. The level of difficulty for new entrants; the lack of bargaining power of suppliers; the bargaining power of buyers between different brands; the high level of potential substitutes; and the competition rivalry, as well as domestic growth areas; were all analyzed within the tobacco industry using the Porters Five Forces Framework. Dominant forces such as government regulation and health awareness influence change in the tobacco industry. The potential impact that theses forces could play on the tobacco industry could be harsh if companies dont adjust and change with them. MAJOR PLAYERS Pakistan Tobacco Company LTD In 1947 Pakistan Tobacco Company Limited was established. The company congratulate itself for being the first multi-national company to start its business in Pakistan. Pakistan Tobacco Company is the subsidiary company of British American Tobacco which started its operations for over 100 years now and dealt in over 180 countries. The Company has international reputation for manufacturing and marketing high quality brands for the adults. PTC is one of the leading companies in Pakistan. PTC has two art factories in two different states and has more than 1,700 people working there and more than a million people working in various aspects of the business indirectly. PTC is the market leader. PTC has a vision of being the leaders of growth, champions of productivity, responsibility and a leading organization PerformanceClipboard01gross turnover of ptc.bmp The gross revenue was increased of about 67 million in year 2011 from 60 million in year 2010 because of the successful introduction of brand capstan which occupied 14% of the market share. In 2011, the growth was initiated by new performance of its brand Capstan established in July 2010. PTC captures a market share of about 49.4 percent in the overall market. At the beginning of 2012, the companys brands have performed well against the competition. The 77 percent increase in such marketing, distribution and selling activities during the period, the operating margins decreased to 9.76 percent in 2012 from 10.27 percent in 2011. The operating margin declined, but still the Company was able to control costs during the period. The gross profit increased to 30.71 percent in 2012 from 25.75 percent last year as

Surrealism and Salvador Dali Essay -- Salvador Dali Artists Painters P

Surrealism and Salvador Dali Salvador Dali, was born Salvador Felipe Jacinto Dali i Domenech on Monday, 11 May 1904, in the small Spanish town of Figueres, in the foothills of the Pyrenees, approximately sixteen miles from the French border in a region known as Catalonia. His parents supported his talent and built him his first studio while he was still a child in their summer home at Cadaques. Dali went on to attend the San Fernando Academy of Fine Arts in Madrid, Spain. He was married to Gala Eluard in 1934 and died on 23 January 1989 in a hospital in Figueres (Etherington-Smith, 12). Dali never limited himself to one style or particular medium. Beginning with his early impressionistic works, greatest inspiration. Surrealism emerged from what was left of Dada (a European movement categorized by its irrationality and lack of traditional values, sometimes referred to as nihilistic) in the mid 1920’s and unlike Dada, Surrealism held a promising and more positive view of art and because of this it won many converts. Surrealism actually got its beginnings as a literary, not artistic, trend in Parisian publications (Stangos, 122). What Surrealism and Dadaism held in common was their belief in the importance of the unconscious mind and its manifestations, as was stressed by Freud. They both believed that through the unconscious mind a plethora of artistic imagery would be unveiled. Both of these , called automatism. The Surrealists also wanted to answer the ques...

Energy Efficiency – a Replacement to Load Shedding

Load shedding is one of the biggest problem faced by everyone in Pakistan, no matter they are domestic or commercial consumers. Pakistan is facing a serious energy crises and it may get worse if not addressed seriously and promptly. Everyone is curious about the role of government in dealing with this issue and relieving consumers through immediate supply side solutions such as new power sources. Government is playing its role in establishing new power plants and potential of utilizing unleashed sources such as coal and renewable resources i. e. ind, solar etc. Domestic and commercial consumers contribute more than 60% in the total electrical energy requirement of Pakistan. Currently, maximum energy deficit is 5500 MW in summers and immediate solutions are unable to meet this deficit in near future. It is not recommended to a consumer to compromise on comfort by not operating some of the high priority appliances but slight change in behavior may contribute much more than expected. Main electricity demand contributors are cooling and heating appliances used by domestic and commercial users. In order to quantify the impacts of such appliances, research has been carried regarding the usage of air conditioners in Pakistan. Consumers have been suffering from crises in form of load shedding for hours in a day no immediate solution seems to be viable in extended summers. They tend to blame government and utility companies for not reducing load shedding. Energy could be made available for extended hours but a mass level awareness about efficient usage of energy is required. Illegal connections, usage of inefficient and unnecessary appliances at peak demand time has worsened the situation and utility companies seem helpless about it. They are not left with any other option to reduce demand except through load shedding. Air conditioners are one of the major contributors in peak load in summer. They comprise 15% of the total peak load requiring at least 3000 MW for the country. A survey regarding usage of air conditioners was floated as a part of this research and 300 domestic and commercial consumers responded to the survey. One of the conclusions of the survey indicated that 21 0C is the average control temperature for AC in households. From the same survey consumers were asked about the maximum control temperature used in household. The maximum average temperature was found to be 26 0C. In order to investigate the influence of this control temperature on household energy consumption and peak load demand, an experiment was carried out on two similar buildings in Karachi. Two rooms of the dimension of 12 X 16 X 12 ft were used for this purpose. One room was operated at 21 0C control temperature for 24 hours period while other at 26 0C. Observations and results indicated that a total of 0. 45 KWhr saving was recorded in the room having AC operating at 26 0C. If this saving is extrapolated to expected number of air conditioners in Pakistan, then a total of 14. 5 GWhr of electrical energy could be saved in a single day. In terms of power this can easily curtail a total of 607 MW out of peak demand, which is equivalent to some of the largest power plants in the country. If similar energy conservation techniques are applied for refrigerators and other cooling appliances then savings could be of much significant level. Due to ongoing gas load shedding scenario, consumers may start turning towards electrical heating appliances, which may potentially add up in electrical energy demand in near future. Large scale awareness is required at each level of consumption. Peak load shifting, discouraging illegal connections and utilizing energy in efficient way are our few life lines. A single consumer contribution may seem insignificant but as a whole it can contribute towards reduction of significant peak load.

Gambling in four perspectives

Gambling in four perspectives Gambling is the practice of betting money or any other material value on an event with an outcome that is not certain and with the primary intention of winning either money or material goods. In most cases the outcome of the gambler is within a short period. Although the exercise is not generally accepted by many authorities, it was been practiced on some set aside days by the Roman Catholics and the Jews. Although people practice gambling for recreation purposes, the practice affects the brain chemistry and could lead to psychological addiction. Reinforcing such a behavior becomes a challenge even after the gamblers incur huge losses in the practice. As the gamblers attempt to try to get rich quickly, they sink in deeper and deeper problems making it more complicated to come out of the problem (Black Shaw 18). Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Gambling in four perspectives specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This problem in some cases needs to be rectified when it reaches extreme levels that could affect the psychological well being of the gambler. The problem of gambling may affect the gambler either biologically, mentally or offer behavioral challenges which all combine to bring about an effect in the health of an individual. A gambler faces the challenge of imminent effect of addiction to the effects of gambling every time he continues with the exercise of gambling something that may take long to drop. Gambling affects the mind of the gambler and eventually reaches a point of requiring guidance and counseling in order to alleviate the problem. Psychologists suggest that neurological features that are shared may determine partially the pathological effect of gambling. Ian has been a gambling victim who has lost all his property through gambling yet remains lost in the miasma of the habit with little success in doing away with the habit. He has decided to eventually visit practicing psychol ogists in an effort to help him recover from the problem that has even made him to be in bad books with the family members. Behavioral psychologist, Mister Brown believes that Ian’s problem has been an accumulation weird behavior started when he was young and perpetuated in to adulthood. He therefore believes that rectifying this problem will involve retracting from the behavior by avoiding visiting the places where gambling is practiced. Mister Brown also suggests that Mister Ian reconciles with his family as the first step into forgiveness and subsequent reformation. Biological psychologist Mister Dennis advised Mister Ian to distance himself from the company of gamblers who provoked his interest of going into gambling. By keeping off from the company of gamblers, he would minimize the chances of the habit increasing. According to Black Shaw (10) gamblers secret norepinephrine which is normally associated with stress, thrill or arousal all which need to be cured using pro per medication. When this hormone is released, the patients may break up even when carrying out the gambling.Advertising Looking for assessment on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Cognitive psychologist Mister Hart suggested to Mister Ian to use medication to heal him from the adverse effects already caused by gambling in his mind. The medication was to cure the permanent effects created by gambling. Black D Shaw M Psychiatric Comorbidity Associated With Pathological Gambling. Psychiatric Times 25 (12) 2008

A Guide to Saying Aunt in Chinese

A Guide to Saying Aunt in Chinese There are many terms for aunt in Chinese depending on whether the aunt is on the mothers side, fathers side, the eldest aunt, or the youngest aunt. Also, each region in China has its own way of saying aunt. Across the board, the most common term for aunt in Chinese is  Ã©Ëœ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ (Ä  yà ­). Pronunciation   The Chinese term for aunt or auntie is composed of two characters: é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨. The pinyin for the first character é˜ ¿ is Ä . Thus, é˜ ¿ is pronounced in the 1st tone. The pinyin for the second character Ã¥ § ¨ is yà ­. That means Ã¥ § ¨ is pronounced in the 2nd tone. In terms of  tones,  Ã©Ëœ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ can also be referred to as a1 yi2. Term Use é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ (Ä  yà ­) is a general term that can be used to refer to  a family member, but it can also refer to people outside of the family. While it is considered polite to formally address female acquaintances as Miss or Mrs. in America, Chinese culture errs on the more familiar side. When addressing friends of parents, parents of friends, or elder females acquaintances in general, it is common to call them é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ (Ä  yà ­).  In that way, this term is akin in auntie in English. Different Family Members As mentioned earlier, there are many ways to say aunt in Chinese depending on many factors. Here is a short breakdown of different terms for aunt in Mandarin Chinese. Ã¥ §â€˜Ã¥ §â€˜ (gÃ… «gu):  fathers sisterÃ¥ © ¶Ã¥ © ¶ (shÄ›nshen):  fathers brothers wifeÃ¥ § ¨Ã¥ ª ½ (traditional) /  Ã¥ § ¨Ã¥ ¦Ë† (simplified) (yà ­mÄ ):  mothers sister舅å ª ½ (traditional) /  Ã¨Ë†â€¦Ã¥ ¦Ë† (simplified) (jià ¹mÄ ):  mothers brothers wife Sentence Examples Using  Ã„€yà ­ Ä€yà ­ li le!é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨Ã¤ ¾â€ Ã¤ ºâ€ ! (traditional Chinese)é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨Ã¦  ¥Ã¤ ºâ€ ! (simplified Chinese)Auntie is here! TÄ  shà ¬ bà ¹shà ¬ nÇ  de Ä yà ­?Ã¥ ¥ ¹Ã¦Ëœ ¯Ã¤ ¸ Ã¦Ëœ ¯Ã¤ ½  Ã§Å¡â€žÃ©Ëœ ¿Ã¥ § ¨(both traditional and simplified Chinese)Is she your aunt? Ä€yà ­ hÇŽo!é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨Ã¥ ¥ ½! (both traditional and simplified Chinese)Hi, Auntie!

Crude Oil and US Gasoline Market

Crude Oil and US Gasoline Market Introduction Crude oil is a mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons. Found under the earth’s surface, crude oil is extracted and separated into its simple components. The components of crude oil include kerosene, jet fuel and gasoline. As a product of crude oil, gasoline is used as engine fuel in automobiles.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Crude Oil and US Gasoline Market specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the United States, crude oil is majorly imported from foreign markets. After its importation, the crude oil is then separated into its components in refinery processes of fractional distillation. It is after this process that gasoline, like paraffin and jet fuel, is supplied to distributers and finally, to consumers. This paper seeks to discuss the opinion that the â€Å"gasoline market in the United States and the market for crude oil are significantly independent†. The paper will look at facto rs that determine the supply, demand and the price of gasoline in the United States as well as the determinants of the demand, supply and prices of crude oil. The paper will then analyze the correlation between the two markets with the aim of identifying whether or not, there exists a relationship between the two markets. Market of Gasoline in the United States The gasoline prices in the United States’ economy are dependent on a lot of factors. Among these factors is the â€Å"unanticipated disruption of U.S. refinery output† (Killian 100). Events like fire that abruptly halts the operations of the refineries have been characterized with â€Å"significant increase in the real price of gasoline† (Killian 100). These particular disruptions however have less significant effects in the prices of the imported crude oil. The phenomenon is expected to have the reverse effect of reducing the price of crude oil as a result of reduced demand which is insignificant in the world market. The factors determining the demand for crude oil and the price of gasoline in the United States such as disruptions results in specified shocks in supply and demand are not easily predictable. It was also noted that the price of gasoline in the United States has some relation to the global market of crude oil. The prices of the two commodities remained high during the period of time ranging from 2002 up to 2008. However, the prices fell in the period of 2008 while the global supply for oil remained the same. A study of the global economic recession that was experienced during the period beginning in 2008 explained the cause of price changes. It was realized that before the recession, there was a high global demand for crude oil over the supply of the same. This pushed the prices up with respect to the laws of demand and supply. The fall of global demand following the recession therefore led to the reduced prices experienced since the year 2008 (Killian 92).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The market of gasoline in the United States is also determined by a number of internal factors which are independent from the market of crude oil. One of such occurrences was the â€Å"damage to the gulf coast drilling wells and refineries† (Gas, 3). The damages for example would translate to the shortage of gasoline leading to subsequent increased prices. The high prices of the gasoline can also be attributed to the government policies that have over time been oriented to only one aspect of controlling the price. The â€Å"chimney plan: to perpetuate the nation’s addition to cheap petroleum† (Gas 3) has been criticized as a profit oriented move rather than price control. It is however viewed that steps to reduce the consumption of gasoline would rather reduce the price as opposed to increasing its supply (Gas 3). The Marke t of Crude Oil In the earlier decades, the rises in oil prices in the United States were attributed to political aspects like the wars in the Middle East and embargoes by the Arab states as retaliation to the United States’ support for Israel, which limited supply of crude oil into the United States from the Middle East countries. The major determinant in the oil sector is still recognized to be its supply relative to its demand. The industrialization of countries like the people’s republic of China and India has put pressure on the global supply of oil due to the relatively increased demand. The threat of the United States’ supply of oil has been worsened by the move of oil supplying countries in the Middle East to reserve their oil for domestic use. The increased consumption by the two giant countries, China and India, has led to increased global oil prices due the increased demand. There is therefore need for â€Å"international effort to reduce demand for o il† (Katel 7). With this respect, no solution has been identified to help control the prices downwards. This factor is beyond the control of the United States according to professionals in the energy sector. According to Medlock, â€Å"it is going to be difficult for the energy supply to expand production at a significant enough pace to drive down prices† (Katel 7). The external drivers of the international oil price is passed to the price of crude oil in the United States and subsequently the prices of the separated components of the crude oil of which gasoline is part (Katel 24). Volatility Relationship between Crude Oil and Petroleum Products The prices of crude oil also depend on a number of features in the oil producing countries. A research study by Lee and Zyren indicated that stability in these countries significantly determines the prices of crude oil. According to the research, wars such as the â€Å"invasion of Kuwait and gulf war 1† caused instability in the market of crude oil.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Crude Oil and US Gasoline Market specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It was also reported that political environments in the crude oil producing countries such as â€Å"transitional regimes† also affect the international market of crude oil (Lee and Zyren 101). In the same study, it was realized that â€Å"the petroleum price variance is greater than crude oil variances† (Lee and Zyren 101). The volatility in the prices of crude oil and those of petroleum products was significantly realized across all periods of the research. The volatility between the prices in the markets for gasoline and that of crude oil is closely related, with an inverse response, to the revenues of the two commodities. The volatility can therefore be viewed as a conditional variable being dependent on the turn over rate of the two products. From the research, Lee and Zyre n noted that the price volatility between crude oil and the gasoline in the United States was greatly caused by the regulations in the crude oil market. It was also noted that the volatility in the prices was not significantly dependent on previous markets of either crude oil or gasoline. Similarly, price volatility doesn’t have significant effects on the future markets of the two products. The research generally represented the view that price volatility between crude oil and gasoline in the United States is an independent significant element (Lee and Zyren 111). Pump Prices and Oil Prices Apart from the asymmetry in volatility in the United States market for gasoline and the crude oil market, it has been established that a further asymmetry occurs between prices of the two commodities. Contrary to the business conception that reduced costs of production yields reduced selling price of a particular product, the oligopolistic market of gasoline gives the oil companies an adva ntage to temporarily dictate the retail gasoline price. A disparity is then significantly realized when the price of crude oil falls. When this happens, individual oil companies are always reluctant to lower retail prices as they try to optimize profits before any competing oil company lowers its price as a market strategy. The fall in crude oil prices does not therefore always result to fall in gasoline price (Adilov and Samavati 62). However, Adilov and Samavati still expressed the view that there could be factors that have changed with time to level a direct relationship between the gasoline retail price and the price of crude oil.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They argue that the asymmetry in the price of the two commodities is not concrete due to the fact that gasoline market is currently invested by increased number of companies. Marketing strategies, according to the two authors is expected to cause price reduction among competing oil companies when crude oil prices fall in a bid to â€Å"undercut competitors† in the oil market (Adilov and Samavati 62). This argument therefore suggests that the prices of the two commodities exhibit some dependence as a result of the competitiveness of the United States oil retail (Adilov and Samavati 63). General opinion has also been expressed that the gasoline prices in the United States are always a factor of the prices of crude oil. The reduction of gasoline prices in the United States during the global recession in 2008 in a way indicated the dependence of the American gasoline prices on the global demand for crude oil. The concept was developed from the observation that gasoline prices wer e high before the period but fell on the onset of the global recession. The reduction of gasoline price was then attributed to the change in demand of the crude oil market as countries reduced their demand for the product (Killian 92). Conclusion There is significant support for the opinion that the price of gasoline in the United States depends more on the internal factors in the United States such as the production facilities and policies among others. It has also been illustrated that there are a number of economic factors that leads to the asymmetry of prices in the two markets. The arguments in view of the dependence of the two markets lack the support of many significant drivers in the gasoline market in the United States. They are isolated arguments that can be easily challenged by the consideration of the internal drivers in the United States. It can therefore be concluded, contrary to other opinions, that to a significant level, the market of gasoline in the United States i s dictated by other factors that are different from the market of crude oil. The gasoline market is actually occasionally asymmetric to the market of crude oil. Adilov, Nodir and Samavati, Hedayeh. â€Å"Pump Prices and Oil Prices: A Tale of Two Directions.† Atlantic Economic Journal 37 (2009): 51-64. Gas. Nation. EBSCO, n.d. Web. www.ejournals.ebsco.com Katel, Peter. Oil Jitters. CQ Researcher, 2008. Web. www.cqpress.com/docs/AffiliationsPDFs/oil.pdf Killian, Lutz. Explaining Fluctuations in Gasoline Prices. A Joint Model of the Global Crude, 2010. Web. www.ideas.repec.org/a/aen/journl/2010v31-02-a04.html Lee, Thomas and Zyren, John. Volatility Relationship between Crude Oil and Petroleum Products. Atlantic Economic Journal 35 (2007): 97-112.

Launching a BPA-free Product Line With Event Marketing Assignment

Launching a BPA-free Product Line With Event Marketing - Assignment Example Bisphenol-A is a toxic material that had been found in polycarbonate feeding bottles of babies. The product launch showcases safe feeding bottles and other feeding products which are safe to use for infants and toddlers. The report also describes how stakeholders were involved in the event and which marketing communication strategies were included in the marketing communication mix. Nuby, considered the world’s number 1 infant care feeding and teething company has come up with a new line of products which are Bisphenol A- (BPA) free. BPA is a toxic substance found in polycarbonate plastic which is used in baby bottles (Klotter, 2006). It is an endocrine disrupter which is a toxic substance that interferes with hormonal functions regulating reproduction, normal cell growth, among others. Grossman (2007) reports that chronic and continued exposure to Bisphenol A may lead to diseases related to the reproductive system such as prostate cancer, breast cancer, cystic ovaries, and en dometriosis. Polycarbonate bottles used as babies can have long term consequences in children. To prevent exposure to this health risk, Nuby has created baby bottles, cups and toys that are Bisphenol-A free. These are relatively more expensive than the regular polycarbonate ones, but considering the safety of children from the fatal risks, they are definitely worth it. Main Findings Nuby has approached Parents’ Magazine which advertises its products, to launch its new line of BPA-free products. These are feeding bottles, sippers, cups and bowls for infants and toddlers which are not made of polycarbonate material and which are free from the toxic substance, Bisphenol-A. Nuby has created such â€Å"products to eliminate any risk or doubt and offer parents the safest option† (Nuby website, 2013). Parents Magazine invited HealthyChildren.org to co-organize the event launch since this organization has the â€Å"only parenting website supported by 60,000 pediatricians comm itted to the attainment of optimal physical, mental, and social health and well-being for all infants, children, adolescents, and young adults† (HealthyChildren.org.). Having doctors speak about Bisphenol A is a responsible act in promoting health issues concerning parents and their children. Both organizations, Parents’ Magazine and HealthyChildren.org will add credibility to the endorsement of the new line of Nuby products. Both organizations are opinion leaders and opinion formers that can greatly influence the preferences of consumers. Event marketing is presented as a way to build brand equity (Keller, 2009). Band equity is the â€Å"added value† which a given brand provides a certain product (Farquhar, 1989). In the case of Nuby products, being BPA-free is the brand equity. Promoting its use is an ethical thing to do instead of just letting people continue with their old habits of purchasing polycarbonate products to use with their children. Baines et al (2 011) contend that marketing communication methods are used to spread information about an organization’s products and services while engaging a target audience. The marketing communication format should have specific objectives as to the desired responses of the audience. Planning the product launch of Nuby’s new line of BPA-free feeding bottles is guided by the planning framework of De Pelsmacker (2010) Analysis of Exhibition Process Wohfeil and Whelan (2006) describe event marketing as interactive communication of brand values by engaging consumers in a marketing event resulting in their emotional attachment to the brand. Zarantonello & Schmitt (2013) compare event marketing to be more direct, and highly interactive than the distant, one-way

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 9

Business Ethics - Essay Example Strict regulation of the labour industry in the USA and other developed countries means companies will have to incur increased cost of production. Therefore, developing countries in regions such as Asia has provided the necessary conditions for businesses to increase their production capacity while reducing cost of production. This has also provided global corporations with an avenue where they enjoy markets in developed countries but avoid the stringent rules and regulations in home countries. While corporations have succeeded in the cost of labour, there has been significant media spotlight on the operations of factories contracted to provide various services with evidence indicating widespread irregularities in labour practices. This report will focus on sweatshop scandal involving Nike in discussion of impropriety in overseas factories while also examining the situation from different stakeholders’ point of view. The ethical problem in this situation is also highlighted based on the argument that Nike concentrated on making profits while neglecting what was right for the workers in the factories. Suggestions are also presented on why attempts to remedy the situation were not effective while also noting how Nike should have reacted to the scandal. The sweatshop scandal involving Nike involves perceived wrongdoings in the organization’s labour practices for a period between 1991 and 2005. The scandal went public tarnishing Nike’s image build on offering high quality products in the sportswear and apparel industry. As an organization that aims to be the best in the industry, Nike’s strategy involves outsourcing various functions and manufacturing capabilities in order to reduce cost and focus on effective marketing strategy for organizational products (Vogel, 2006). Therefore, their outsourcing strategy led to the sweatshop scandal as a number of contractors in

Interplanetary Logistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Interplanetary Logistics - Essay Example The reality is that human interaction with space was once consider a fantasy that was not remotely possibly, yet we are now perhaps only a few generations from being able to make that fantasy become reality (Bainbridge 2009). Space is largely seen as a mechanism by which we can increase our existing supply train. As such, the process by which modern civilisation conducts sustainable space exploration in the future will depend directly on an innate ability to effectively manage the supply chain, leading to a discussion centring on interplanetary logistics. The process by which this is undertaken today takes on a drastically different shape than it did during the original Apollo moon missions. During those early attempts at space exploration, required materials and tools were simply carried along for the wide. Future space exploration, however will depend on a complex network focused on the supply chain that enables sustainable colonisation based upon resources being available to people in real time, as they are needed, rather than simply relying on this on a mission by mission basis. This process will soon begin a new with scheduled missions to the moon beginning in the year 2020. The moon will literally become in a stepping off point for exploration deeper into space, and the vision is to have it become a supply command post where supplies and other associated items in terms of logistics are planned for in advance and are available as needed. No longer will astronauts be forced to rely only on what they can carry, but the objective is to have a system of logistics in place where needs are not only anticipated, but provided for in advance in order to keep the work going. This is a critical concept in terms of interplanetary travel due to the reality that lost or misplaced items can literally take months to replace, costing the crew valuable time to conduct experiments and get

Essay in hr Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Essay in hr - Assignment Example Studies conducted over the years have supported the argument that of the various factors that influence employee motivation and commitment at the workplace fairness and trust were ranked the highest. Although there is considerable debate and lack of consensus over the concept and appropriate definition employee engagement, there is hardly any disagreement or doubt over the issue of fairness and its relevance at the workplace. It has been clearly established by various researchers that along with adequate pay and opportunities the existence of fairness in the organisation and trust toward the management play a key role in gaining employee commitment and dedication. The psychological contract is a metaphorical representation of the various factors that help organisations in emphasising and exploring the key issues affecting their employees. It affords the management in addressing a range of issues faced by the employees and in devising effective plans to overcome the same. The fundamental objective of a psychological contract is to ensure that the management places more emphasis on the ‘people’ i.e., the employees as they are integral for organisational success and development. It also focuses on improving and enhancing the relationship between the employees and the management / organisation. The employees are integral to the success of any organisation and are instrumental in improving the profitability of the organisations. Hence various organisations include the element of ‘psychological contract’ as part of their strategic plans in order to help the organisations grow and prosper. It helps in the overall developmen t of the organisations and help in tapping the energies, creativity and knowledge offered by the employees (Truss, Soane, and Edwards, 2006). There has been a drastic change in the manner in which organizations operate and function. The attitude toward the employees has also

Can Leaders Really Motivate Employees Assignment - 1

Can Leaders Really Motivate Employees - Assignment Example There are certain employees who want more salary, while there are others who want more power, or other kinds of benefits like accommodation and privileges. Taking these facts into consideration, it can be said that managers motivating employees is a matter of chance. Occasionally, the steps managers take are the ones required to motivate a certain employee, and thus it happens. However, this does not always happen. There are certain ways in which the tendency of an environment to motivate the employees can be enhanced. Still, the influence of that environment upon the employees’ performance would vary from one case to another. Generally, an organization should link reward to performance, and really reward the employees who are found to display better performance. â€Å"To be a successful manager/motivator you must first understand that you cannot motivate anyone. You can only create an environment that encourages and promotes the employees self motivation† (Lowe,

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History of Business - Essay Example Following industrial revolution, entrepreneurs formed Corporations with the main purpose being to raise funds for expanding business operations (Pillay, 2015). The terms of engagement dictated that shareholders would receive dividends after the company gains a profit. Other firms were able to control an entire market thereby creating a monopoly situation within the economy. Most companies within the same industry made agreements on product prices as well as the manner of dividing business operations as time went by (Carroll & Buchholtz, 2014). Another method of doing business that developed after Industrial Revolution was the formation of Trusts. Ideally, Corporations sharing the same market formed a trust, which took control of business activities through a group of trustees. . The economic philosophy under Laissez-Faire economics was of the perception that without government interference, businesses and the economy as a whole would perform best. Kurtz & Boone illustrated that unregulated markets would create competition in the market and thereby making prices to be fair for the consumers (2011). Related to this theory are aspects of Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism stood on the ideology of helping the rich as the poor did not benefit the financial health of a nation. The emergence of technology in the 19th century marked the beginning of the entrepreneurial era. Lussier demonstrated that entrepreneurs became an instrumental aspect of business by combining various factors and coordinating labour in order to ensure business processes are effective (2012). Upper class, upper middle class, lower middle class and the working class were the main divisions of the social class. Essentially, the upper class and the upper middle class became the target market for entrepreneurs whose aim was to maximise profits and expand the market share. The production era persisted in the period after the civil war of

Essay in hr Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Essay in hr - Assignment Example Studies conducted over the years have supported the argument that of the various factors that influence employee motivation and commitment at the workplace fairness and trust were ranked the highest. Although there is considerable debate and lack of consensus over the concept and appropriate definition employee engagement, there is hardly any disagreement or doubt over the issue of fairness and its relevance at the workplace. It has been clearly established by various researchers that along with adequate pay and opportunities the existence of fairness in the organisation and trust toward the management play a key role in gaining employee commitment and dedication. The psychological contract is a metaphorical representation of the various factors that help organisations in emphasising and exploring the key issues affecting their employees. It affords the management in addressing a range of issues faced by the employees and in devising effective plans to overcome the same. The fundamental objective of a psychological contract is to ensure that the management places more emphasis on the ‘people’ i.e., the employees as they are integral for organisational success and development. It also focuses on improving and enhancing the relationship between the employees and the management / organisation. The employees are integral to the success of any organisation and are instrumental in improving the profitability of the organisations. Hence various organisations include the element of ‘psychological contract’ as part of their strategic plans in order to help the organisations grow and prosper. It helps in the overall developmen t of the organisations and help in tapping the energies, creativity and knowledge offered by the employees (Truss, Soane, and Edwards, 2006). There has been a drastic change in the manner in which organizations operate and function. The attitude toward the employees has also

History of Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History of Business - Essay Example Following industrial revolution, entrepreneurs formed Corporations with the main purpose being to raise funds for expanding business operations (Pillay, 2015). The terms of engagement dictated that shareholders would receive dividends after the company gains a profit. Other firms were able to control an entire market thereby creating a monopoly situation within the economy. Most companies within the same industry made agreements on product prices as well as the manner of dividing business operations as time went by (Carroll & Buchholtz, 2014). Another method of doing business that developed after Industrial Revolution was the formation of Trusts. Ideally, Corporations sharing the same market formed a trust, which took control of business activities through a group of trustees. . The economic philosophy under Laissez-Faire economics was of the perception that without government interference, businesses and the economy as a whole would perform best. Kurtz & Boone illustrated that unregulated markets would create competition in the market and thereby making prices to be fair for the consumers (2011). Related to this theory are aspects of Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism stood on the ideology of helping the rich as the poor did not benefit the financial health of a nation. The emergence of technology in the 19th century marked the beginning of the entrepreneurial era. Lussier demonstrated that entrepreneurs became an instrumental aspect of business by combining various factors and coordinating labour in order to ensure business processes are effective (2012). Upper class, upper middle class, lower middle class and the working class were the main divisions of the social class. Essentially, the upper class and the upper middle class became the target market for entrepreneurs whose aim was to maximise profits and expand the market share. The production era persisted in the period after the civil war of

Statement of Purpose Essay Example for Free

Statement of Purpose Essay As a young child, I was attracted to sci-fi films because of exploration of the planets. Anyone, who has ever seen the television series â€Å"Star Wars,† will never forget the imposing space ships connecting planets, robot troops; dangerous battles in the space, and of course, two human-like robots. In the television series â€Å"Star Trek,† I really took part in adventures of the Enterprise spaceship to mysterious planets at the speed of light. These films gave me a question: â€Å"Can we create a machine having intelligence as human? The question is still haunting me, and becoming an computer engineering To indulge in natural science in my childhood, I became excellent in physics, chemistry, and especially in math. I had won three times in math competition, two in high school, and one in Tarrant County College. It seemed only logical that I pursue a career in computer engineering. In the realm of engineering, I have developed a special interest in the field of artificial intelligence and had taken a programming course. I was a technical assistant at Department of Automation and Robotics of Institute of Applied Mechanics in my country, Vietnam, I learned about its many practical applications, especially in relation to automation and robotic. It also helps me understand more about my major. Another particular interest of mine is theoretical physics. I am attracted by philosophy of physics, theoretical physics, Eastern philosophy ideologies about structure of the universe, similarities between meditator and scientists. Later I would like to work in the area of research and development for industry. It is in research and development that I will make the greatest contribution, utilizing my theoretical background and creativity as a scientist. As Sun Tzu said â€Å"A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step,† being admitted to SEO program is not only a good single step to begin my journey, but also the greatest chance for me to open the door of graduate school. The program will help me to gain practical experiences. It also gives me ideas what reality needs, so that I will have better direction to pursue in my professional goals.

DNA Based Biosensor in Diagnosis: A Review

DNA Based Biosensor in Diagnosis: A Review The advent of fast and easy DNA testing has given the space for the Science to develop small and easy-to-handle equipments called Biosensors. DNA based biosensors have been proven very useful and are accorded with much importance in detecting the target genes responsible for diseases. This article enlists different types of biosensors, their basic principle of operating system, the preparation of DNA microarrays, lab-on-a-chip and their role in diseases diagnosis. DNA biosensors provide swift, sensitive, selective, simple and economical detection of DNA hybridization. New strategies for DNA biosensor are enumerated and are used meticulously in recent trends and for future directions. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) amplify the electrochemical signal when used with DNA hybridization. Electrochemical, piezoelectric, SPR, optical DNA biosensors are used to detect various viruses like hepatitis virus, HCMV, HIV, orthopox virus etc. and also for the diagnosis of various diseases like cancer, tube rculosis, COPD, genetic diseases (sickle cell anemia i.e. due to single point gene mutation), cystic fibrosis, diabetes etc. The methodologies of detecting such diseases using different types of DNA based biosensors and gene chips are described in this article. PCR free DNA chips, cell- omic sensors and nanosensor are emerging tools in the field of diagnosis. Recent advances in developing such devices provide myriads of new opportunities for DNA diagnostics. Introduction A rapidly developing area of biotechnology arousing intense scientist interest is that of biosensor. Biosensor has become popular in the field of food analysis [1], bioterrorism [3], environmental [2-3] and in the area of human health monitoring and diagnostics [4-6]. Recent advances are being mad in all areas of biosensors technology. Presently, most fascinating and prospective sensors are immunosensors based on affinity reactions between antibody and antigens and DNA biosensors based on the hybridization between DNA probes and their complementary DNA strands. In general, biosensor is an analytical device which employs biological recognition properties for a selective analysis. Such sensors combine a biological element with a physiochemical transducer for the electronic signal output which is proportional to the concentration of analytes [7]. A basic biosensor assembly includes a biological element, transducer and detector. The sensing material may be antibodies, enzymes, whole cell or nucleic acids that form a recognition layer which is integrated with the transducer via immobilization by cross linking, adsorption or covalent binding. Transducers may be amperometric (measuring the current at constant potential) [8], potentiometric (measuring the potential at constant current) [9], piezoelectric (measuring the changes in mass), thermal (measuring the changes in temperature) [10] or optical (detects changes in transmission of light) [11]. The interaction between the analyte and the biological material, used in biosensors may be of two types: a) Bioaffinity sensors: depend on the selective and specific attachment of the target molecule to the surface-attached ligand partner (e.g. antibodies, nucleic acids). b) Biocatalytic sensors: an immobilized enzyme is used as a tool to recognize the target substrate (sensor strips with immobilized glucose oxidase used for personal monitoring of diabetes). A number of steps, much labor, time and costly instruments are required in usual analytical technique whereas biosensors are economical, fast and simple and can be used in small laboratories and hospitals of remote areas which are devoid of sophisticated instruments facilities. DNA Biosensors Nucleic acid recognition process is the basis of DNA Biosensors. These are being developed with a rapid pace with an ambition for inexpensive testing for genetic and infectious disease and for detecting DNA damage and interactions. The study of gene polymorphisms and the analysis of gene sequences play a fundamental role in rapid detection of genetic mutations, opens up new opportunities for reliable diagnosis even before any symptoms of a disease appear. Thus recent advances in developing such devices offer the opportunities for DNA diagnostics. DNA biosensors are made by immobilizing single stranded (ss) DNA probes on different transducers for measuring the hybridization between the DNA probes and their complementary DNA strands [12-13]. The current methods to identify specific DNA sequence in Biological samples depends on the isolation of double stranded (ds) DNA and further polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify the target sequence of DNA. The PCR product is then subjected to electrophoresis or adsorbed onto a suitable membrane and exposed to a solution containing DNA probe. Surface Chemistry and Biochemistry The immobilization of DNA probe onto the transducer plays an important role in the performance of the DNA Biosensor. It should be in well-defined probe orientation and should be readily accessible to the target. The mode of immobilization is the determining factor for the type of environment of probes that are immobilized at the solid surface. On the basis of nature of physical transducer, various schemes can be opted for the DNA probes attachment to the surface such as thiolated DNA utilisation for self binding onto gold transducers, the formation of a complex by the use of biotylated DNA with a surface-confined strepavidin or avidin, covalent binding to the gold surface through functional alkanethiol-based monolayer and coupling covalently (carbodiimide) to the functional groups on carbon electrodes or adsorption onto carbon surfaces. Introduction of peptide nucleic acid (PNA) has paved way for many exciting and new opportunities to DNA biosensors. Peptide Nucleic Acid is a DNA mimic, the only difference is that the sugar-phosphate bone is replaced by a pseudo-peptide one. Like use of surface-confined PNA recognition layers provides remarkable sequence specificity on DNA biosensors and offers other advantages. DNA dendrimers may also be utilized for imparting extreme sensitivity onto DNA Biosensors. By shape, these are tree-like superstructures which possess numerous ss arms that are able to hybridize to their complementary DNA sequence. The immobilization of these dendritic nucleic acids onto physical transducer gives an amplified response [14]. Recent advances in the field of biomolecular techniques may be used to design new generation miniaturized biosensor. Types of DNA based Biosensors 1. Optical Type Fiber optics Biological Element Laser Interferometry Transducer DNA Advantages Optical fiber Highly sensitive Disadvantages Expensive equipment and not portable turbidity interference 2. Electrochemical Type Potentiometric Biological Element Conductometric Transducer Amperometric DNA Advantages Carbon paste electrodes Cheap, Fast Limitations Interference of highly buffered solution 3. Piezoelectric Type DNA Biological Element Quartz Crystals Advantages highly sensitive, Fast 4. DNA chips DNA Quantitative Optical DNA based Biosensor Optical methods are the most commonly used for the detection of analytes. DNA optical biosensors are based on a fiber optic which transduces the emission signal to a fluorescent label and that can carry light from one region to another through a series of internal inflections. The methodology of fiber-optic DNA bio-sensors involves placing of a single stranded DNA probe at the ending-site of fiber and assessing the fluorescent changes resulting from the combination of a fluorescent indicator with the double stranded DNA hybrid [15 16]. The first DNA optical bio-sensors were developed by Krull and Co workers using fluorescent indicator ethidium bromide. A fiber-optic DNA sensor array was developed by Watts group for the detection of multiple DNA sequences at one time [17]. The hybridization of fluorescent labeled complementary oligonucleotides was assessed by observing the increase in fluorescence. A real label free optical detection of DNA hybridization can be offered by a different type of optical transduction based on evanescent wave devices. The different types of optical biosensors include: 1.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) It is a quantum optical electrical phenomenon based on the interaction of light with metal surface. Only at specific resonance wavelength of light, the energy carried by photons of light is transferred to packets of electrons (photons) on a metal surface [17]. These biosensors depend on change in surface optical properties (change in resonance angle because of alteration in interfacial refractive index) which results from the surface binding reaction. Thus, these devices integrate the simplicity of SPR with the sensitivity and specificity of wave guiding devices. The SPR signal that is expressed in resonance units is therefore a measure of mass concentration at the senor chip surface [18-20]. 1.2 Molecular Beacons (MBs) MBs are oligonucleotides possessing a stem and loop structure that are labeled with a quencher at one end and a fluorophore on the other end of the stem that converts into fluorescent upon hybridization. MB probes possess high sensitivity and specificity and direct monitoring capability. A biotinylated molecular beacon probe was developed to prepare a DNA sensor using a bridge structure. MB was biotinylated at quencher site of the stem and linked on a glass through streptavidin that act as a bridge between MB and glass matrix. The fluorescence change was measured by confirmation change of MB in the presence of complementary target DNA [21-23]. Quantum Dot It is an ultra sensitive nanosensor based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FREET) that can detect very low concentration of DNA. In these neon sensors, quantum dots (QDs) are linked to specific DNA probes to capture target DNA. The target DNA strand binds to a fluorescent dye (Fluorophore) labeled reporter strand and thus forming FREET donor acceptor assembly. Quantum dot also functions as target concentrator as well as FREET energy donor [24]. DNA nanosensor contains two target specific DNA probes i.e. reporter and capture probe. The reporter probe is labeled with fluorophore whereas capture probe is labeled with biotin that binds with streptavidin conjugated with QD [25]. The fluorophore acceptor and QD donor in close proximity produce fluorescence from acceptor by means of FREET on illumination of the donor. The presence of target DNA is indicated by the detection of acceptor emission. The un-hybridized probe does not give fluorescence. The CdSe Zns core shell nanocrys tal can be used as donor and Cy5 (fluorophore) as acceptor for developing QD based DNA nanosensors [25]. For this type of optical bio sensors fluorescent dyes used as standard labels are very expensive and can rapidly photo bleach. An alternate used is chemiluncinscence format, which overcomes the use of fluorescent dyes. A Fiber-optic DNA biosensor array A new method of preparing the fiber-optic DNA biosensor and its array for the simultaneous detection of multiple genes is described. The optical fibers were made into fiber-optic DNA biosensors by adsorbing and immobilizing the oligonucleotide probe on its end but were first treated with poly-l-lysine. The fiber-optic DNA biosensor array was well prepared by assembling the fiber-optic DNA biosensors in a bundle in which each fiber carried a different DNA probe. Hybridization of fluorescent- labeled cDNA of Rb1 gene, N-ras gene and Rb1 p53 gene to the DNA array was monitored CCD camera. A good result was achieved [61]. 2. Electrochemical DNA Bio sensors These are very useful devices for sequence specific biosensing of DNA. The inherent miniaturization of such devices and advance micro fabrication technology make them excellent tool to diagnose DNA. DNA hybridization is detected electrochemically by monitoring the current response at fixed potential. Detection of hybridization is also commonly done through the increased current of a redox indicator or from other changes induced by hybridization in electrochemical parameters such as capacitance or conductivity [26-28]. The discovery of carbon nano tubes (CNTs) plays an important role in development of electrochemical DNA sensors. Various CNT based electrochemical are developed because the combination of unique electrical, thermal, chemical, mechanical and 3-D spatial properties of CNTs with DNA hybridization offers the possibility of creating DNA bio sensors with specificity, simplicity, high sensitivity and multiplexing. Two major groups in which CNTs divided are single walled CNTs (SWCNTs) that are comprised of a single graphite sheet rolled with a tube and multi walled CNTs (MWCNTs) that are concentric closed graphite tubes [29]. CNT enables immobilization of DNA molecules and also used as powerful amplifier to amplify signal transduction of hybridization [30]. Two types are generally used to immobilize the CNT on electrodes aligned and non-aligned. Two approaches are generally used for the immobilization of bio molecules onto CNTs that are non covalent attachment (physical absorption) and covalent binding (some cross linker agents (1-ethyl 3-3 dimethylaminopropyl) carbodilimide hydrochloride (EDC)/N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)] or affinity binding (avidin biotin interaction). CNT also act as novel indicator of hybridization. The application of arrayed CNT into DNA chip requires small amount of sample and development of CNT base biosensor has an important role in DNA based diagnostics in hospitals or at home [30]. Various methods are used for immobilizations step i.e. for attaching the DNA probe onto the solid surface that are (a) the use of thiolated DNA probe for self assembled monolayers (SEM) onto gold transducers by covalently bonding to the gold surface through functional alkanethiol based monolayers.(b) Attachment of biotinylated DNA probe through biotin avidin interaction on electrode surface for e.g. avidin modified polyaniline electro chemically deposited onto a Pt disc electrode for direct detection of E. Coli by immobility a 5 biotin labeled probe using a differential pulse Voltametric technique in the presence of methylene blue as an DNA hybridization indicator [31,32]. The electrochemical DNA biosensors may be labeled free and labeled based. Label Free In this direct detection technique the target molecule does not need to be labeled [27]. The elimination of labeling steps simplifies the readout the speed and ease of nucleic acid assays. Thus recently increased attention has been accorded to new label free electrochemical detection schemes. There is a possibility in exploiting the changes in DNAs intrinsic electroactivity (Guanine oxidation peak of hybridization). To deal with the drawbacks of the probe sequences i.e. absence of G, guanines were substituted by inosine residues (pairing with C) and detection of hybridization was done through the target DNA guanine signal. The change in the guanine oxidation and intrinsic DNA redox signals detects the chemical and physical damage [33]. Label Based In label based electrochemical biosensor specific organic dyes, enzymes or metal complexes are used for hybridization detection. Redox active molecules such as methylene blue, dacinomycin that is inserted between the dsDNA and gives signal which is used for detecting hybridization [26] (e.g. of two commercialized DNA chips based on redox active molecules are eSensor TM produced by Motorola life sciences [34], Inc. and Genlyser TM by Toshiba)[35]. Piezoelectric DNA Biosensor These are the mass sensitive devices rely on quartz crystal that oscillate at a defined frequency when oscillation voltage is applied. Increased attention has been given to piezoelectric method due to their simplicity, cost, sensitivity and real time label free detection. The quartz crystal microbalance is an extremely sensitive piezoelectric device that monitors the hybridization events. These biosensors DNA probe is immobilized on the surface of oscillation crystal. The increased mass due to hybridization reaction results in change in oscillating frequency [36-37]. A Piezoelectric sensor for determination of genetically modified soyabean roundup ready [RR soyabean] by immobilizing probe related to 5-enolpyrllvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) gene onto gold piezoelectrodes [38]. For detecting a point mutation in a human gene (apolipoprotein-E polymorphism) a combination of DNA piezoelectric biosensor and PCR was developed by immobilizing biotinylated probe on the streptavidin coated gold surface of quartz crystal. The hybridization probes with complementary, non-complementary and mismatched DNA of synthetic as well as amplified PCR samples from human blood DNA was taken out and the device was able to distinguish polymorphism [39]. Colorimetric or Strip type DNA sensor Using these sensors the direct detection of DNA hybridization is possible [40-42]. The dry-reagent strip type biosensor has been developed for visual detection of double stranded DNA within a short time [43]. Oligonucleotides conjugated gold particle is used as probe. The main advantage of these biosensors is not requiring any instruments, multiple incubation and washing steps. Integral part of strip consists of gold particles, with oligo (dT) attached to their surface. Biotinylated PCR products are hybridized with poly (dA) tailed oligo, switched to the top of strip and immersed in the appropriate buffer. With the migration of buffer in upward direction, the nanoparticles that are linked through target DNA through poly (dA/dT) hybridization are rehydrated. Immobilized streptavidin then capture the hybrid in the controlled zone of the strip. The test is 8-10 times more sensitive than ethidium bromide in agarose gel electrophoresis. The detection limit is abysmally low of 2 fmol of amplified DNA products. DNA Biochips Microarrays, DNA arrays, gene chips or biochips are same terminology often being intermixed. DNA microarrays are small, solid supports which themselves are usually microscopic slides, but can also be silicon chips or nylon membranes onto which the sequences from thousands of different genes are immobilized, or attached, at fixed locations. The DNA may be spotted, or synthesized directly onto the support. DNA microarrays detect the change in gene expression levels, genomic gained and losses, mutations in DNA and infectious agents, diagnosis of genetic diseases, drug screening or forensic analysis. Developing the methods for detecting target hybridization, designing probe arrays, data analysis and reconstructing the target sequence are required for successful implementation of DNA chip technology. Such array technology thus forms the basis of integration of molecular biology, surface and analytical chemistry, advanced micro fabrication, robotics, software and automation. In this technique, RNA extracted from two samples are labeled with two different fluorochromes (generally the green cyanine 3 and the red cyanine 5 (Cy3, Cy5)) before being hybridized to a biochip consisting of large numbers of cDNAs/oligonucleotides arranged orderly onto a glass microscopic slide. After hybridization, a scanner records excitation of the two fluorochromes at given wavelengths and the intensity of the fluorescence emission signals that is proportional to transcript levels in the biological samples. The data is analyzed using specific software that enables clustering of genes with similar expression patterns, with the assumption that they share common biological functions [33, 44]. A new ultrasensitive electronic sensor has been developed by Singapore scientists that would speed up effectively DNA testing for disease diagnosis and biological research. The novel electronic sensor array would be faster, accurate and cost-efficient. Excellent sensitivity has been shown by the Nanogap Sensor Array in detecting the trace amounts of DNA. By saving time and cutting expenses, newly developed Nanogap Sensor Array offers a scalable and viable alternative for DNA testing. The presence of DNA is translated into an electrical signal by biosensor for computer analysis. The distinctively and meticulously designed sensor chip has the ability to detect DNA efficiently. The novel vertical nanostructure design and two different surfaces of the sensor allow ultrasensitive detection of DNA [45]. Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) Lab Chip is a device which involves preparation of sample and detection of DNA array. The objective of this technology is to integrate multiple processes, including collection of sample and pretreatment of it with the DNA extraction, hybridization and detection, on single self-contained microchip i.e. on a microfluidic platform. The capability to do all the processes on a single chip merits excellent advantages in terms of cost, speed, efficacy, effectiveness, contamination, sample consumption and automation. Laboratory transportation to the source of sample will be enabled by such miniaturization of analytical instrumentation. The development of these credit-card sized microlaboratories is commonly based on latest micromachining and microfabrication technologies, utilizing processes well known in the manufacture of electronic circuitry [14]. Cell-omic sensors Cell based detection systems can be combined with the microarray probes generating the hybrid arrays of cells within arrays of DNA/protein probs. This allows multiparameters analysis [46]. Applications of DNA Biosensors Biosensors plays a distinguished role in the field of environmental quality, food analysis, study of biomolecules and their interactions, drug development, crime detection, medical diagnosis, quality control, industrial process control, detection system for biological warfare agents, manufacturing of pharmaceuticals and replacement organs. The applications of DNA biosensor can be classified into three broad categories: sequencing, mutation detection and matching detection [47]. Their main use is for diseases diagnosis. Numerous diseases can be diagnosed and variety of infectious agents can be detected using DNA biosensors. 1. Viral diseases By DNA microarrays Either viral detection were being carried by immunological techniques (i.e. use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for the detection of circulating virus-specific antibodies) or PCR based techniques (i.e. reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR is used to detect the presence of specific viral genes). Both these approaches possess some limitations. Immunological tests need specific antisera and the production of antisera is laborious and time-consuming task whereas PCR is prone to failure in its ability to identify multiple viruses simultaneously [48]. Therefore, recent advances in DNA and protein microarray methodology fulfill the need of a rapid and sensitive detection of viral infections (also identify multiple viruses in parallel). DNA microarrays for viral analysis can be divided into viral chips and host chips. Each not only detects and identifies but also monitor the viral populations. In 1999, the first viral DNA microarray for the temporal profiling of viral (human cytomegalovirus, HCMV) gene expression was described. Viral replication or de novo protein synthesis was blocked by treatment of infected cells with cycloheximide or ganciclovir and then the expression profiles of viral genes was generated using microarray. Using this approach, the HCMV genes were classified to immediate-early, early or late expression classes, on the basis of their expression profile in response to the drug treatments. This can be used as an identifying hybridization signature for the molecular staging of an infection [49]. Orthopoxvirus causes smallpox and has two subtypes variola major and variola minor, of differing pathogenicity. This problem of orthopoxvirus subtype discrimination was solved by producing an array capable of correctly identifying the four of the orthopoxvirus species by laassri etal. [50]. HIV genotyping was done using chip technology [51]. A unique signature that is derived from viral is provided by viral chips. Host chip is used for examining the host response i.e. changes in host gene expression. This provides a molecular signature of infection. Cummings and Relman exposed an idea of host chips [52]. Vant wout etal. examined HIV 1 infection in CD4+ T-cells to detect changes in host gene expression that were specific to HIV infection [53]. Proinflammatory genes and genes involved in endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways, cell cycle, and apoptosis were the host gene signatures identified. Detection of hepatitis B virus Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is one of the causative agents of viral hepatitis which is leading cause of liver cancer. Infection of HBV is a public health menace for worldwide resulting acute and chronic clinical consequences. Acute HBV infection may lead to liver failure or may progress to chronic liver disease. Some chronically infected individuals may subsequently suffer cirrhosis and liver failure or develop hepatocellular carcinoma. Effective antiviral therapy may inhibit or retard the progression to severe liver disease. By DNA optical biosensor Bacterial alkaline phosphatase (phoA) gene and hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA were used as target DNA. For capturing the target gene onto streptavidin coated magnetic beads, a biotinylated DNA probe was used. A calf intestine alkaline phosphatase labeled DNA probe was used for subsequent enzymatic chemiluminescences detection. The detection cycle was less than 30 min, excluding the DNA hybridization time that was about 100 min. at fematomole or picogramme levels both phoA gene and HBV DNA could be detected. No response signal was obtained when in sample target DNA did not exist [54]. By Piezoelectric DNA biosensor HBV nucleic acid probe was immobilized onto the coated gold surface of quartz crystal using polyethyleneimine adhesion, glutaraldehyde cross-linking (PEI-Glu) method or the physical adsorption method. Better results were obtained with the coated crystal with the PEI Glu method to immobilized HBV nucleic acid probe than physical adsorption method with respect to sensitivity, reproducibility and stability. With the hybridization reaction, the mass is increasing that resulted change in oscillating frequency. The frequency shifts of hybridization have better linear relationship with the amount of HBV DNA, when the amount was in range of 0.02-0.14 microgram/ml [55]. By electrochemical DNA biosensor An electrochemical DNA biosensor that is a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with label free21mer single-stranded (ss) oligonucleotides (related to hepatitis B virus sequence) via covalent immobilization. [Cu(dmp)(H2O)Cl2] (dmp = 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline) is used as an electrochemical indicator. The method is simple, economical and allows the accumulation of copper complex within the DNA layer. Cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry were used for electrochemical detection. The detection of hybridization is accomplished by using [Cu(dmp)(H2O)Cl2], where electroactivity and strong association with the immobilized dsDNA segment lead to significantly enhanced voltammetric signal. The differential pulse voltammograms for the cathodic signals of [Cu(dmp)(H2O)Cl2] at a bare GCE, and at ss- and dsDNA-modified GCEs are also recorded. The peak currents of [Cu(dmp)(H2O)Cl2] increased in the order of bare GCE, ssDNA/GCE, and dsDNA/GCE. After hybridization process, a greater peak current was observed from dsDNA/GCE than at ssDNA/GCE, because that more [Cu(dmp)(H2O)Cl2] molecules are concentrated or bound to dsDNA helix than to ssDNA. Thus, [Cu(dmp)(H2O)Cl2] can be used as an electroactive indicator for recognition of the surface hybridization process. The sensitivity of the electrochemical hybridization assay was investigated by varying the target oligonucleotides concentration. The different current value obtained in the DPV response of [Cu(dmp)(H2O)Cl2] after hybridization of probe with target is recorded with three repetitive measurements. The current response at about 0.485V increased in proportion to the amount of the target sequence used [56]. Detection of hepatitis C 3a virus An electrochemical DNA biosensor i.e. a gold electrode modified with a monolayer of a peptide nucleic acid probe and 6-mercapto-1-hexanol was used that depends on covalent binding of the14-mer PNA probe (related to the HCV genotype 3a (pHCV3a) core/E1 region) onto the electrode. This self-assembled PNA could selectively hybridize with a complementary sequence in solution to give dsPNA-DNA on the surface, and this increases the peak current of methylene blue (MB) which is used for detecting target DNA sequence. Diagnostic performance of the biosensor is described and the detection limit was found to be 5.7  ÃƒÆ'-  10à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢11  M with a relative standard deviation of 1.4% in phosphate buffer solution, pH 7.0. This sensor exhibits high reproducibility and could be used to detect the target DNA for seven times after the regeneration process [57]. Cystic fibrosis Mikkelsens team, pioneered the utilization of redox indicators, demonstrated utility of electrochemical DNA biosensor for detecting the cystic fibrosis F508 deletion sequence which is associated with 70% of cystic fibrosis patients. For the 4000-base DNA fragment, 1.8 fmol was the detection limit in relation to a Co(bpy)33+ indicator. High selectivity for the disease sequence (not for normal DNA) was accomplished by doing the hybridization at high (43 °C) temperature [14]. 3. Diabetes Diabetes is a worldwide public health problem. The diagnosis and management of diabetes requires a tight monitoring of blood glucose levels. Thus millions of diabetics test their blood glucose levels daily by making glucose the most commonly tested analyte. The challenge is to provide such reliable and tight glycemic control. Electrochemical biosensors for glucose thus play a leading role. Amperometric enzyme electrodes, based on glucose oxidase (GOx) bound to electrode transducers, have thus been found the subject of substantial research [58]. Glucose sensors are commonly used to measure the blood glucose level of diabetes patients. Using the latest DNA chip technology, many scientists at Diabetes Center have discovered the implication of new gene in the cause of type 2 diabetes. They created an abnormality in one of these genes known as ARNT (aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator gene which is a member of a family of transcription factors) in mice and the mice developed changes in insulin secretion which were same as in patients with type 2 diabetes. The ARNT is required for the development of normal embryo. It is also related to responses to hypoxic stress condition and certain environmental toxins, such as dioxin and thus for integrating genetic and environmental insults it is present at specific potential sites. The expression of many other genes in the cell is regulated by transcription factors like ARNT and thus they are the master regulators of cellular functions. The first use of DNA chips has been represented by this study,